Democracy
Protest in Hong Kong during the Umbrella Revolution, October 2014
Credit: Studio Incendo, 2014 / CC BY
Summary
Democracy is a political system in which the legitimacy of those in power is based on the acceptance of their power by the people. Having greatly expanded over the course of the twentieth century, it continues to evolve and has now been almost universally adopted as the system of choice. However, many countries are as yet democracies in name only, while in long-established democracies a certain amount of mistrust is evident, notably expressed by low turnout in elections and the rise of populist parties.
Democracy emerged in Athens in the fifth century BCE. It is a political regime based on the sovereignty of the people, where power is legitimized though its acceptance by the people. In the words of American President Abraham Lincoln in 1863, adopted into the French Constitution in 1958 (article 2), democracy is “Government of the people, by the people, for the people.” This contrasts with dictatorship (and authoritarian regimes), where power is exerted by one person or by a group (oligarchy), with no separation or balance of executive, legislative and judiciary powers, and hence without legal or institutional constraint and usually by force. In extreme cases, dictatorship can take the form of a totalitarian regime in which the exercise of power extends to the private sphere and seeks to make citizens submit to an ideology (3 rd Reich, USSR, Islamic State, etc.).
Modern democracy has its roots in the Middle Ages, especially in the rise to power of the English Parliament, countering the power of the monarch (Magna Carta, 1215). But the first liberal democracy was born with the independence of the United States, whose constitution (ratified in 1788) enshrines the principles of liberty and equality before the law, unlike the aristocratic regimes that were the norm in Europe. In France in the same period, the National Assembly that emerged out of the Revolution of 1789 was established on liberal principles set out in the Declaration of theRights of Manand of the Citizen. The American and French revolutions established principles of representative government based on Enlightenment philosophy, in which the decision-making powers of elected representatives are subject to the rule of law defined in a constitution that guarantees the protection of individual rights and freedoms.
Democracy building in France, 1789-2018
Comment: These chronological indicators trace some of the main stages of democracy-building in France: from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789 to the present day, they demonstrate some major advances, such as freedom of expression and worship (1814), the abolition of slavery (1848), universal suffrage including women (1944), the abolition of forced labor (1960) and abolition of the death penalty (1981).
Different models
Contemporary democracies developed very gradually and their modes of operation have continued to evolve. While the fundamental principles if democracy remain the same, it can take different forms. There is no single model because every political system is shaped by its social and cultural context. Democracy may be parliamentary or presidential and can sometimes include elements of direct democracy, as in Switzerland. Some democracies are republics, while others are parliamentary monarchies preserving aristocratic traditions and rights, as in the United Kingdom.
Today most democracies are representative and grounded in a principle of the equality of citizens. However, in the past, the right to vote was often dependent on wealth (tax-based voting system), with so-called universal suffrage introduced only gradually. In France, “universal” male suffrage was not definitively established until 1848, while the right to vote was not extended to women until 1944; non-EU foreign residents are still excluded. Similarly, for a long time there were many restrictions on racial grounds. Into the 1960s and 70s, many European powers then regarded as democratic possessed colonies in which entire populations were excluded from citizenship.
Democracy in the World
Comment: The maps show two indicators of democracy calculated by research centers. Overall, the indicators represent democracies in Europe, America and Oceania, and authoritarian regimes in Africa and the Middle East. Clear differences are nevertheless visible in the case of some countries (Venezuela, Russia, Myanmar, etc.) or even continents (in Africa). These differences result from the choices of sub-indicators, sources and weightings, which should be broken down.
Attributes of democracy
Certain attributes are now necessary for a regime to be described as democratic: regular, free elections by universal suffrage; pluralism and the possibility of a change of power; separation between the executive, legislative and judicial branches; a stable, independent legal system; protection of basic rights and individual freedoms (Rule of Law), notably freedom of conscience, religion, expression and the press (existence of free, independent media), freedom of association and assembly (implying multiparty democracy); equal rights (equality under the law). Often caricatured as rule by the majority, democracy cannot exist unless it guarantees respect for minorities (upheld by independent institutions), the right of individuals to dissent (freedom of conscience), to express their opinions (freedom of speech) and to organize in order to spread their ideas (freedom of association).
Global spread
This type of political regime became widespread in the twentieth century, when it expanded out of Western Europe and North America to all continents, although it is less prevalent in the Middle East and Central Asia and remains fragile in Africa. The resurgence of authoritarianism in Europe between the two world wars was succeeded by a wave of democratization in countries that had been defeated (Japan, Germany, Italy) or colonies that had achieved independence (India), etc. This process was slowed by the Cold War, since the Western democracies did not shrink from shoring up dictatorships (Pakistan, Iran, Chili, Philippines, Indonesia, Zaire, etc.) in their fight against communism.
The end of the Cold War brought with it the end of most communist and military regimes in Latin America and Southeast Asia, and the establishment of multi-party regimes in almost all African countries, which had hitherto been one-party states with the blessing of the Western powers. The Arab revolutions of 2011 reflected the aspiration of these countries’ populations (particularly the young) to see the establishment of a democratic system and the rule of law. However, they did not produce stable democratic regimes (with the possible exception of Tunisia).
Today, very few regimes would boast of not being democracies (with the exception of the remaining communist countries and absolute monarchies). Even corrupt and authoritarian regimes claim to be democratic and feel obliged to organize a semblance of elections (rigged elections, lack of media freedom, etc.). Almost everywhere in the world, the label “democratic” has become one of the main, if not the sole criterion giving legitimacy to power.
Critiques of democracy
Nevertheless, democracy has long been subject to critique, especially from Marxist thinkers. For them, there is currently no true democracy, because political equality between citizens is rendered impossible by the political, economic, and/or media dominance of the ruling class over the rest of the population. Economic inequality translates into unequal access to knowledge and information, preventing the working classes from fully enjoying their rights and freedoms. In this view, so-called democratic systems are not in fact democratic, since the people are dispossessed of real political power, which in practice is held by a small minority of individuals (oligarchy) controlled by the economic elites. This sense of not being properly represented by their elected officials seems to be growing in many democratic countries. It is reflected in falling voter turnout, the rise of populist parties and greater distrust of politicians.
Representation of the Extreme Right in the European Parliament, 1999-2014
Comment: These maps show the escalation of extreme right-wing parties in the European Parliament since 1999. At the beginning of the period, this trend was confined to just a few countries (mostly Austria and Belgium, but also France and Italy) but since 2009 has spread to most EU states. Extreme right-wing parties regularly garner more than 15% of votes (Austria, Poland, the Netherlands and France). However, Spain and Portugal, the Baltic States and Ireland have never elected representatives to the European Parliament in Strasbourg during the period.
- political regime > Political Regime
- In common usage, this term refers to a state’s political institutions, whereas the broader notion of political system includes the various political and social actors operating within them (political parties, trades unions, media, voluntary organizations, voters, etc.). The many criteria for differentiating between political regimes vary from one author and period to the next, tending to increase over time in number and sophistication (number of leaders, procedures for appointing the government, degree of separation between the legislative, executive and judiciary authorities, relations between government and governed, etc.).
- sovereignty > Sovereignty
- This political idea was formed in the Middle Ages in order to legitimate the independence of emerging states (France, England) from the Pope and Emperor, and taken up by many thinkers (Bodin, Grotius, Schmitt). It refers to a state’s claim to recognize no authority above itself on its own territory and serves more to justify political and legal representations than to describe existing power relations. As a fundamental notion of the international system and the principles of equality between states and non-intervention in internal affairs, it is the opposite of interference. In democratic states, it is attributed to the “sovereign” people, whose votes give legitimacy to institutions and governments. Processes of regional integration involve delegating elements of state sovereignty.
- Modern
- Modernity, characterized by the increasing importance of the economy, of technical innovation, of Western-type democratic regimes, and of rational-legal bureaucracy, is defined from an evolutionist perspective according to the model prevalent in the most industrialized countries, and is a trend toward which all the so-called less advanced societies are seen as converging. This viewpoint, widely denounced for its naïve evolutionism, remains nonetheless implicitly present in much political discourse and within a good deal of research. “Postmodern” is used of artistic and philosophical currents of the second half of the 20th century that critique and deconstruct the concept of modernity.
- liberal > Liberalism
- Arising from Enlightenment philosophy, Liberalism refers to a corpus of political philosophy that places the preservation of individual rights at the center of its conception of society and the political order. Devolving from this, on the one hand, are mechanisms to safeguard the individual against the arbitrary use of state power, which mostly translate into a preference for a democratic political order; and, on the other, an emphasis on respecting private property, which leads in turn to a preference for minimal state involvement in the economy – restricting the state’s role to matters of sovereignty. Behind this consensus are many debates around the level of state involvement in the economy, or around protection of individuals vs. that of a political order and given social norms, which translate into different variants of liberalism (such as German-style ordoliberalism, libertarianism, or liberal conservatism).
- Rights of Man > Human rights
- These are the fundamentally inalienable and universal rights and duties of human beings, which are indefeasible and universal. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, these were limited to “natural rights” (basic freedoms considered to be allied to human nature) but human rights have now been expanded to include civil, political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental rights on the basis of human freedom and dignity. Human rights have been enshrined in the constitutions of most democratic regimes. They are also subject to many protective provisions at both regional and international levels.
- individual > Individual
- The individual, as a basic social actor, is playing an increasingly important role in the processes of globalization for multiple reasons, including the ever-faster circulation of ideas, values and information; the ability to build networks for sharing and solidarity without physical proximity; the networking of international expertise; and human rights movements and demands for democracy.
- cultural > Culture
- Culture is what distinguishes human existence from the natural state, that is to say it denotes the processes through which humans use and develop their intellectual capacities. According to Clifford Geertz (1973), culture is a system of significations commonly shared by the members of a social community, who use them in their interactions. Cultures are therefore not immutable but change according to social practices, incorporating processes of both inclusion and exclusion. Culturalism is a concept which considers that supposed collective beliefs and membership of a particular culture predetermine social behavior.
- citizens > Citizen
- The origin of citizenship goes back to Antiquity, and it denotes the enjoyment of civic and political rights within democratic regimes (right to vote, right of eligibility, exercise of public freedoms). By granting rights and obligations to citizens, popular sovereignty provides the foundation for the state’s legitimacy. Citizenship is an element of social cohesion, with citizens forming a political community (theory of the social contract) to which they owe primary allegiance. Depending on the period and country, it has been refused to some sections of the population: women, slaves, the poor, the illiterate, soldiers, foreigners, or minors. The Maastricht Treaty (1992) created a European citizenship within the European Union.
- Rule of Law > Rule of law
- Rule of law refers to a system in which the legal standards are codified, stable and transparent, so that citizens know their rights and duties, while public authority is limited by its subjection to the law. This kind of system presupposes the existence of independent courts of law and equality of all before the law.
- minorities > Minority
- Any social group which finds itself in an inferior situation relative to a dominant group in a given society. This situation can be expressed quantitatively, but can also be defined with reference to qualitative data of a cultural nature (linguistic, religious, ethnic, national, even social minorities). Membership of a minority can be a matter of self-identification or an ascribed identity; it may bring with it various kinds of discrimination. The presence of minorities can give rise to social engineering policies (positive or negative discrimination), or demands for protection and recognition.
- colonies > Colonization
- A historical process by which Europe established deep links with the rest of the world. From the late fifteenth century (the Age of Discovery), a vast movement began for economic, political, and cultural domination of the world, first by Spain and Portugal and then by England, France, and Holland, which from the late sixteenth century started to compete for possession of colonial wealth. A second wave of colonization took place in the nineteenth century, when all the countries of South America that had been under the first two empires were already independent. The Industrial Revolution encouraged the search for new markets, and France and England jockeyed for a share of part of Asia and Africa. The colonized territories had different statuses (dominions, protectorates, or direct rule).
- Cold War
- Period of ideological, geopolitical, economic and cultural confrontation between the United States and the USSR from the late 1940s through the end of the 1980s. Vigorous debate is still ongoing among historians regarding the precise dates of its beginning (the 1917 Russian Revolution? 1944? 1947?) and end (the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 or the collapse of the USSR in 1991?). These two superpowers formed two blocs of varying degrees of cohesion around them. This bipolarization of the world to some extent masked other political, economic and social dynamics.
- powers > Power
- Ability of political actors to impose their will on others. Comparable to the notion of authority within a nation, power is never absolute but has its existence in a relationship, since power relations are a matter of each actor’s perception of the other. Power is key to the realist approach to international relations, where it is understood in geostrategic terms (hard power is based on force and coercion, especially of a military nature). The transnationalist approach offers a more diversified vision including factors of influence (Joseph Nye’s soft power exerted in economic, cultural and other terms) and emphasizing the importance of controlling different orders of power, from hard to soft (Susan Strange’s “structural power”).
- rule of law > Rule of law
- Rule of law refers to a system in which the legal standards are codified, stable and transparent, so that citizens know their rights and duties, while public authority is limited by its subjection to the law. This kind of system presupposes the existence of independent courts of law and equality of all before the law.
- inequality > Inequality
- Unequal distribution of goods, material and/or non-material, regarded as necessary or desirable. Beyond income inequality (national, international and global), cumulative inequalities can also be measured with respect to accessing public services (healthcare, education, employment, housing, justice, effective security, etc.) and accessing property and natural resources more generally, and also relative to political expression or the capacity to respond to ecological risks. When these inequalities are based on criteria prohibited by law, they constitute discrimination.