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Humanity’s ecological footprint is such that scientists have declared the dawning of a new geological epoch—the Anthropocene. Desertification, deforestation, acidification of the oceans, the massive erosion of biodiversity, the depletion of fish stocks and the multiple forms of pollution all count among the many forms of environmental deterioration caused by human activity—and which has considerably accelerated since 1950.

Global warming is a complex international problem involving many actors. It is a direct consequence of anthropic emissions of greenhouse gases. Despite the fact that the first universal agreement on climate was signed in Paris in 2015, the international climate régime remains ill-equipped to respond to the urgency of the problem and to address its structural causes.

Fresh water is renewable, but without substitute. Essential to life on Earth, access to it remains very unequally divided. In addition to its massive use by intensive agriculture, industry and the energy sector, the very unsustainable modes of consumption and growth in emerging countries are leading to a strong increase in the demand for water, while soil deterioration and climate change only worsen water stress. The preservation of water resources thus takes on geopolitical, environmental, economic, social, and cultural dimensions.

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is threatened by the deterioration of natural environments, the over-exploitation of natural resources, demographic pressure, urbanization, pollution, and climate change. However, implementing policies to protect biodiversity comes up against many obstacles: the divergence of interests and priorities between states; consideration of the numerous actors involved; the appropriate scale of action; favored mechanisms for action, and so on.

After a period of decline, the number of undernourished people in the world is again on the rise, and famine has either returned or is threatened in Africa’s conflict areas, even though there is enough food to feed the world’s population. Food globalization and the products of agribusiness and agroindustry have transformed eating habits, with important consequences for public health.

A source of power for states and a pillar of economic development, fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) provide nearly 80% of the world’s energy needs. Although their consumption needs to be reduced to combat climate change, this is a slow process because of the inertia of the energy systems in place, together with industrial lobbying and market dynamics, which organize production and energy consumption.

Although, in the global energy mix, renewable energies are still marginal compared with fossil fuels, they are rapidly expanding. Their recent development is above all a response to the need to combat climate change. However, the inertia of energy production systems and the reluctance of state authorities to make energy producers bear the social and environmental costs of their activities slow the transition to clean energy significantly.